The problem involved a huge amount of content — from atoms to atoms, from atoms to proton neutrons to quarks — and the composition of the material was removed from one layer.
The answer to this question can be said to be the (part) development of particle physics and quantum field theory, with a lot of pre-existing knowledge, a lot of content, but it’s also interesting, so listen to me.
1. Atomic nuclear, proton and neutron
Although the concept of atoms had been introduced long before, the understanding of the atoms in modern physics had not progressed until the beginning of the twentieth century.
In 1911, the New Zealand physicist Ernest Rutherford performed a famous Rutherford test to verify the atom ‘ s structure [1]:
He bombarded the gold platinum with α particles (or, in fact, helium atoms) and discovered a wide-angle dispersion, which led to the Rutherford atomic model, with a very small core (atom core), a positive charge Ze, with most of the mass of the atoms on the atoms, followed by Z-negative electron around the atoms.
Figure 1: Rutherford Ginning Experiment and Rutherford Atomic Model
By 1917, Rutherford had shot the α particles into the air (the air was mostly nitrogen, so the most important element was nitrogen), and he found that the air would emit a new particle, which was of the same nature as the hydrogen atomic nucleus and also had positive electricity.
It was only in 1925 that Rutherford correctly understood the process, which was in fact the first reported nuclear reaction, which he achieved for the first time in human history:
^alpha\rightarrow
The nitrogen atoms capture a helium atom and release a proton to an oxygen atom.
At that time, experiments had found that the mass of the atom was close to the integer of the mass of the proton, and it had been assumed that the atom core consisted of an entire number of protons, which could be obtained on the basis of the amount of the electric charge of the atomic core.
It’s good for hydrogen atoms, which have the same mass as a proton, but very different for helium atoms. – Two positive charges for helium atoms, but four times the mass of hydrogen atoms. If there were four protons in helium atoms, how would the two additional positive charges be offset? There are similar problems with the heavier atoms.
To explain the contradiction between experiments and assumptions, Rutherford first introduced the concept of the presence of neutral particles in the atomic core in 1920, predicting the existence of neutrons. In his speech at the Bekhrian Lecture of the Royal Society, he proposed [3]:
Perhaps, within such a small range of atomic nucleus, excess protons attract extra-nuclear electrons and form a neutral particle of similar mass to a proton.
Until 1932, the British experimental physicist Chadwick designed an experiment, found neutrons and measured their mass close to the proton.
This has led to the understanding that the atomic nucleus is made up of protons and neutrons, and has laid a vital foundation for the future access of mankind to nuclear energy, which can be said to have opened the door to the age of nuclear energy. Chadwick won the 1935 Nobel Prize for Physics.
Figure 2: James Chadwick, 1891 10.20 – 1974.7.24
Nuclear power and platinum
The problems posed by the nuclear power had been resolved and new problems had arisen.
The size of the core is typically 10{-15}metres, and the protons are also active. Within this small range, there’s a strong electromagnetic exclusion between protons. So it can’t be stable, it can collapse and it won’t exist! This has not happened, however, and most of the atoms in reality are stable.
In order to explain this phenomenon, scientists at the time believed that there should still be a more powerful force within the atomic core than electromagnetic power, i.e. a “nuclear power” (or force). After extensive experiments, two characteristics of nuclear power were found:
1) the nuclear power has a very short range and can only have a visible effect within the nuclear core, or only at a distance of 10{-15}m;
2) The size of the nuclear power is independent of the charge, i.e. there is no difference in the nuclear power between protons – protons, protons – neutrons, neutrons – neutrons.
On the basis of these results, in 1935 the Japanese physicist Yugawa Su tree presented the theory of nuclear power by contrast with electromagnetic power.
Figure 3: Yukawa, 1907.1.23 – 1981.9.8
The quantum theory used to describe electromagnetic interactions – quantum electrodynamics (QED) – suggests that electromagnetic attraction or exclusion between electron, proton, and electric particles, such as electrons, is achieved through the exchange of photons with zero static mass, which leads to an inexhaustible range of electromagnetic power, which in formulae is inversely proportional to distance:
V(r)sim\frac
By analogy with electromagnetic theory, Yukawa-sumi believes that nuclear power should also be transmitted by a medium particle, which he calls the luminum genre, which is very short, which suggests that the mass of the luminum genre is not zero and is very high. Because of the power and distance that a non-zero medium particle provides:
V(r)\sim{frac)
Of these, R is inversely proportional to the mass of the vector particle: R~1/m, and because of an index factor in the formula, the larger the mass, the faster it can be reduced from distance, as shown in the figure below:
Figure 4: The relationship between Yukawa and distance, mass
The force range known at that time was about 10{-15}m, so it was possible to estimate that the mass of aluminum media was about m_{\{\1 (text{MeV}-2) (text{MeV} [4].
In 1947, British physicist C. F. Powell observed luminum genres in the cosmic line and measured their mass at approximately 140\text{MeV}, consistent with Yukawa ‘ s theoretical predictions. Subsequent studies have shown that the rims interact strongly with the atoms, and have confirmed that rims are particles that transmit nuclear power. There are three types of gills: gills with a positive charge, gills with a negative charge, and gills with no electricity.
According to the foregoing, the properties of protons and neutrons are in fact very similar, especially in their performance in nuclear power, except that the charge of protons and neutrons is different, but the charge does not affect nuclear power. Therefore, protons and neutrons can be considered to be the same type of particle (known as “nuclear” N) with a different electrical state, and, similarly, gills+, gills–, gills————————————————————————————————————————————————————————————-, and——————
3. Symmetrical symmetry of symmetry
In order to gain a better understanding of what follows, a little bit of symmetry is relevant here.
We know that the electron spin is \\frac{2} and that an electron can be in two different states of rotation (i.e. \\frac{3}) or downward (i.e. \\frac{2}3) in which the electron is the same in electromagnetic interactions. In turn, two electrons, up and down, are, in our view, two different states of the electron, not two different particles. In mathematics, you can write an electronic state:
\e=begin{equation}\left(\begin{array}\uparrow\\downarow\end{array}\right)\end{equation}
The complete state of an electronic is to be expressed in a column vector, or it can also be written in a stacked form:
\e=a \uparrow\b \downarrow\
This means that an electron will be in a superheavy state of up and down, and the ratio of the two states does not affect the electromagnetic interaction nature of the electron.
Figure 5: Electronic spin map
As it says, proton p and neutron n can be seen as two different electrical states of a nuclear, imitating electronics, and a nuclear can be written:
== sync, corrected by elderman ==
Similarly, changing the ratio of protons to neutrons, the nature of the nuclear in the powerful interactions remains unchanged, and this characteristic of the nuclear is called “symmetry of the same twirl”, the concept of which was proposed by Heisenberg in 1932, counted I. It is easy to see that a symmetrical symmetry of the electron is produced by a symmetrical symmetry, even with a similar name [6]. Symmetry of the symmetry of the symmetry of the symmetry, which was the first significant internal symmetry encountered in particle physics, is of great importance for the establishment of the later quark model.
Similarly, symmetry of the symmetry of the symmetry can also be written in the form of a vector:
\pi=begin{equation}\left(\begin{array}{pi{0}end{array}\end{equation}
And the combination of these three states doesn’t affect the nature of the strong interaction of the platinum as a whole.
In addition, it has been found that the same-situ rotation is consistent in the strong interaction, i.e., the total-symmetric rotation of a pre-symmetric particle is the same as that of the post-acting particle.
4 – Strange particles
To study the nature of electric particles, people invented clouds. The clouds are filled with saturated gases and placed in a magnetic field. When electron particles enter the cloud room, they move round (or arc) under the influence of the magnetic field and leave a trail in the cloud room, which can be determined by means of information analysis, such as a trajectories, for certain properties of the particle, such as the ratio of the charge mass. However, neutral particles cannot leave a trajectories in the clouds.
In 1947, Rochester and Butler studied cosmological rays using the clouds and discovered a number of “V”-type events, i.e., two trajectories in the clouds at a certain point, which suggests that a neutral particle decayed at this point, generating two electric particles. The following is the first photo of the “V” event cloud observed:
Figure 6: There’s a clear “V” track in the bottom-right part of the figure
By way of analysis, one of these last-state particles is a proton, the other is a platinum, and the decaying particle mass is clearly larger than that of a proton, based on energy persistence. However, only protons, neutrons, electrons, photons and gills were known at the time, with a mass of 938MeV, 939 MeV, 0.5 MeV, 0, 140 MeV, so this was a completely new unknown particle, later known as \Lambda^0, and the “V” type event observed was a decaying process:
{\cHFFFFFF}{\cH00FFFF}
Then another type of “V” event was discovered, the last-state particles of which were thorium+ and thorium– a particle of about 1,000 times the mass of the electron, later known as K^0.
The \Lambda00 particles and K^0 particles were all exotic particles, but it was only in 1954 that after the production of a large number of strange particles from the 3GeV Proton Synchromous Accelerator experiment in the United States of America in the Black Seaweed, their “genocious” nature was shown and systematically studied, while the \Lambda^0 particles were the total name of a group of particles found at the time, similar to the amount of charge, and each one had an “ecdotal number”, expressed in S, with positive negatives, some odds were positive and others negative. The charge numbers are constant in any process, but unlike them, they are constant only in strong and electromagnetic interactions and not in weak interactions.
5. Strong and quark models
With the development of particle physics experiments, more and more powerful objects have been discovered. The particles involved in strong interactions are referred to as the strong ones. Based on the decay nature of the strong, the number of weights (similar to the charge and the odd number) is proposed, expressed in B, which in turn divides the strong into two categories: heavy and gin. The weights have a non-zero number of gravitys, the protons and the neutrons are all heavy, the weight of which is 1 and the number of antigravity is 1. The number of weights in the genre is 0, and the gill and K^0 particles belong to the genre.
So far, more than 100 strong have been found in the experiment, and the quality and longevity of these strong ones vary greatly. The discovery of a large number of strong ones naturally brings to mind the chemical Mendeleev periodic table, and it is hard to say that so many strong ones are basic particles, and they are more likely to consist of a few more basic particles.
Figure 7: Periodic table of chemical elements
Many attempts have been made [8]:
In 1949, Fermy and Yang Jinning presented the Fermy-Yan model, which considers protons and neutrons to be basic particles, and gills consisting of protons, neutrons and their antiparticles, such as:
^ = p\bar{n}
In 1956, Changichi Sakada presented the Sakada model, considering protons, neutrons and \\Lambda to be the basic particles.
The Femi-Yan model does not explain the strange particles, while the Sakada model has difficulty explaining the weights. There were other unsuccessful attempts, but they formed the basis for the subsequent Quake model.
In 1964, M. Gell-Mann and G. Zweig presented the Quark Model independently. In their view, the strong are made up of three more basic, the Quake.
Figure 8: Papers by M. Gell-Mann on the quark model
The Quaker model assumes three Quakes:
Upper quark (u), charge 2/3 e, weight 1/3, odd 0
Down Quakers (d), Charge – 1/3 e, Heavy 1/3, Odd 0
Quiroga (s), charge 1/3 e, weight 1/3, odd – 1
In the Quack model, many experimental phenomena are explained:
The protons are made of two upper and one lower, the neutrons are made of two lower and one upper qu ‘ qu ‘ qu ‘ qu ‘ qu ‘ qu ‘ qu ‘ qu ‘ qu ‘ qu ‘ qu ‘ qu ‘ and its anti-particle, as shown below:
Figure 9: Protons, neutrons and pi-parans of Quake
The strange particles of the strong actually contain the strange quarts, such as \Lambda0, which is made up of an upper quak, a lower quak, and a strange guds, while K^0 is made up of a lower quak and an extra quak.
And the nuclear power between proton neutrons is actually the interaction between internal quarks.
Figure 10: Interaction between protons and neutrons
It is worth noting that in the 1960s, when the Quake model was presented, our older scientists presented an ultimatum model of relativist power structures, with the results of research leading up to the international non-relativist Quake model, some 1-2 years before the international equivalent relativist Quake model. Unfortunately, because of the very limited scientific exchanges that we had with the international community at that time and the fact that the results were also published in Chinese in the country ‘ s most common periodicals, which are about to be suspended, the international academic community was unable to understand and quote them.
6 Electronic-proton Depth Non-Flexible Disspersion and Partial Submodels
The Quake model, in short, is a model that classifies the strong, which, because of its ability to successfully explain many facts, makes extremely complex things very simple and immediately receives universal attention, but the Quaker model is a theoretical model that requires experimental evidence.
People experiment with seawater and meteorites; detect cosmic rays; and use a variety of high-energy accelerators in the hope of finding evidence of the presence of quarks. However, before 1969, nothing was found.
At that time, most people had lost hope that they could not find evidence of the existence of Quake, which could only be interpreted as being just some kind of mathematical symbol, a mathematical amount in the physical equation.
But in the 1930s, people discovered that neutrons had magnetic rectangles.
If a basic non-separable particle has magnetic rectangles, the particle must also have spin and charge. But we know that neutrons, though twirling by a second, are non-charged, so neutrons cannot be a basic particle, but are made up of more basic particles.
What about protons or neutrons? To answer that question, the most direct idea is to look inside the proton. Of course, this “see” process is not so straightforward.
A more typical experimental method is Depth Non-Flexible Scattering (DIS, Deep Inelastic Scattering), which simply means using high-energy electrons to bomb a proton, to inject an electron into the proton’s internal structure, and to invert the internal structure of the proton by analysing the last-state particles.
Figure 11: Electronic-proton Depth Non-Flexible Scatter
In the figure above, K is an injecting electron, K^, an end-state electron, p for a bombarded proton, X for an end-state particle collection. The interaction of electrons with protons is created by exchanging an intermediate particle, photon q.
The experiment found that there were numerous dot charges in the proton and that they were essentially free to move. The electro-proton Depth Non-Flexible Scatter Experiment shows that the nuclear ‘ s structural function has no dimension. This is important information about the structure of protons (or nuclears). These experiments inspired then-theoretical discussions about the nuclear structure, in which the famous “part model” proposed by Feynman in 1969 was the most productive.
Figure 12: Feynman (Richard Philips Feynman, 1918-1988)
According to the Part Submodel, a nuclear that moves near the speed of light can be considered to consist of a free-point particle of high-speed motion, i.e., parts, with high-energy reactions between electrons and protons occurring through interactions with those parts.
The properties of the inner molecules of the strong are described in part subdistribution functions (parton distribution function, PDF). PDF definition intuitively defined as the density of certain categories of parts of the strong that carry a kinetic fraction x.
The Depth Non-Flexible Experiment has three important findings that, compared to theoretical models, lead to important conclusions on protons:
At the separate rate of the experiment, the particles that made the protons were in the form of spot particles.
The point particles that make up protons are twirling 1/2 ferme.
Particle ration charge for the proton.
Combining these three experiments, clear images of proton structure were found:
Protons consist of smaller particles with a spin of 1/2 with fraction charge.
7. Harmonization of Partial Submodels with Quake Models
The electro-nuclear Depth Non-Flexible Scatter Experiment shows that the nucleus is made of a pyrotechnic that rotates to a half, and that all the strong, including the nuclei, in the Quake Model is made of Quake, so is the part of the Quake that was seen in the experiment? What is the relationship between these two models?
Indeed, some sub-models are consistent with the Quake model. We can equate parts with Quake, and this nuclear model becomes Quake-Part. The core in the Quake model is made up of three Quakes: protons are uud, neutrons are udd, and parts of the Quake model are not limited in number.
In order to harmonize the two models, we can view the nuclear as a constituent, i.e., a nuclear that, in addition to the uud and udd, which show its ” character ” , includes a large number of positive and anti-quake pairs that are constantly being created and destroyed. The uud and udd, which mark the nuclear identity, are known as price quarts, and are in the process of being created and extinguished against quacks, and they are in the rising sea. Helquorque is a result of quantum rises and falls, and its presence is only felt when high-energy electrons strike a proton. The Quake model can be considered as a low-energy image of the nuclear model, while some of the submodels are high-energy images of the nuclear structure.
Defines f_u(x), f_d(x), f_s(x) equal to the number (density) of protons where the corresponding qu ‘qu ‘qu ‘x’ of kinetic mass x times the mass of proton, f_ \bar{u}(x), f_\bar{d}(x), f_\bar{s}(x) is the number of inverse qu ‘qu ‘s.
of which x is the fraction of the total mass of protons carried by qu ‘ qu ‘ qu ‘ qu ‘ que.
Since the number of Quakes in the proton in the “sea” is equal, the total number of Quakes minus the total number of Quakes should be equal to the number of Quakes in the protons:
\\int^1_0 [f_u(x)-f_\bar{u}(x)]=2 (two u-priced quarts in protons)
\int^1_0 [f_d(x)-f_\bar{d}(x)]=1 (a d price quart in proton)
\\int^1_0 [f_s(x)-f_\bar{s}(x)]=0 (no s price quarts in protons)
Average share of each qu ‘ qu ‘ amount in proton (simplely understood as the percentage of this qu ‘ qu ‘ qu ‘ )
P_u=\int^1_0x[f_u(x)-f_\bar{u}(x)]dx
P_d=\int^1_0x[f_d(x)-(f_\bar{d}(x)]dx
P_s=\int^1_0x[f_s(x)-f_\bar{s}(x)]dx
The results of the experiment give in protons:
P_u0.0.36, P_d\approx 0.18
P_s is about a few percent (except for u d s, there are three quarts, but the quality is higher, so the weight is smaller, it is negligible).
But all three together, they’re only about half, and one is far. So there are other important ingredients in the protons besides u qu ‘ qu ‘ qu ‘ d qu ‘ qu ‘ d, s qu ‘ qu ‘ que.
So what’s this ingredient?
While it is not known what it is for the time being, it can be assumed that some of the properties of the substance are: electronics are involved only in electromagnetic interactions and weak interactions, and since electronics cannot detect the substance, this means that the substance is electro-neutral and is not involved in electrical interactions.
8. Quantum colour dynamics
The electro-proton Depth Non-Flexible Scatter Experiment shows that the parts within the proton are of a “progressive freedom” nature and, in short, the closer the parts are, the weaker the force. When parts are very close to each other, the force is so weak that they can fully act as free particles.
This phenomenon is called “Asymptotic Freedom”. On the other hand, the greater the distance between parts, the greater the force.
In 1973, American scientists David Jonathan Gross, 1941; Hugh David Politzer, 1949-; and Frank Wilczek, 1951-) discovered the progressive and liberal nature of the non-Abel standard group under the SU (3) standard, which created the theory of Quantum Chromodynamics, which describes strong interactions. They also won the Nobel Prize for Physics in 2004.
The “colour” here has nothing to do with the “colour” in the macro. It is a description of the nature of microparticles, and any particle with a “colour charge” is involved in strong interactions, as is the case with a “charge” particle involved in electromagnetic interactions.
Figure 13: Gross, Poltz, Wiltsk
According to quantum colour dynamics, there are two basic degrees of freedom in theory, or two types of particles:
Quaker, Fermiko, spin a second, which is Quaker in the Quaker model;
The glue, the botanical, spin 1 is the medium particles that transmit strong interactions.
In fact, the particles that are not detected in the electro-proton Depth Non-resilient Experiment are glues.
QCD explains the existence of glue (which is a electro-neutral particle in a strong, whose effect is to bind Quack into a strong, with eight forms of glue) and considers that coloured Quake is combined by exchanging Quake with Quake, or Quake with anti-Quake, or between Quake and Quake. All particles with colours can emit and absorb glue, thus achieving strong interaction. Absorption and release of glue can change the color of Quake. And the nuclear power inside the nuclear core is the residual effect of the strong interaction between the nuclear nucleus.
What is the internal structure of the proton?
Now we know that protons (or neutrons) have quarks, and glues. So what is the proportion of these ingredients? What’s changed?
To answer this question, the following figure is sufficient:
Figure 14: Share of components in protons
This is a map of experiments and theories. How?
For the unprofessionals to understand, the following is a generic description in less strict language –
The cross-coordinates of the figure are energy, even if the coordinates are the weight of the corresponding ingredient. xu_v for u-priced quarts, xd_v for d-priced quarts xg for glue (twenty times the figure) and xS for s-seaquarks (twenty times the figure).
When the x is large and close to 1 , the weight of the glue and the Haekquak is less than u qu ‘ and d qu ‘ qu ‘ qu ‘ and quickly tends to zero. At this point, the main ingredients in the protons are u and d for price quarts.
And as can be seen from the graph, the weight of u Quake is about twice that of d Quake, which is consistent with the proton made up of uud in the Quake model.
Because of the fundamental nature of the quantum field theatrical vacuums, when the space resolution was high enough, people could “see” the seaquaque, antiquake and glue that were generated by the vacuums, at which point the protons were no longer made up of 3 quác, but of 3 price quác and the infinity of more than one quácque, antiquác and glue, and the number of particles produced by these vacuums increased with the space-time resolution.
In the study of the overall static nature of protons, the physical effects of the hyena, anti-quake and glue are not evident; however, in high-energy reactions, due to the delayed effects of relativistic time, their presence in high-speed motion protons is prolonged and even plays a leading role in some sports regions.
Figure 15: The uud in the graph is price qu ‘ qu ‘ qu ‘ que, the other qu ‘ qu ‘ qu ‘ que, is right and anti qu ‘ qu ‘ que, and always comes in pairs. The line between Quake means glue and provides for interaction between Quake.
It should be noted, however, that the theory of quantum color dynamics is strange, and when energy is high, it is easy in mathematics (to use microturbation theory) to solve the motion of quarks and glues, but in low energy (i.e., non-microturbation areas), the solution of equations is so difficult that so far it has not been possible to fully elicit quarts and glues, which also includes the properties of low-energy protons and neutrons.
Summary
To conclude, as stated at the beginning, the exploration of the internal structure of proton neutrons is almost the history of the physical development of an entire particle. From the discovery of the atomic nuclei, to the confirmation of Quake and the glue, from the nuclear power of Yukawa, to the Quantification Dynamics later, every step is justified. And our exploration of microparticles has not stopped. How does Quake in Proton Neutron really move? Will Quack have a more basic structure? These questions cannot be answered at this time, but their exploration will certainly broaden our perception and show us the wider universe.
References
^MeV is the energy/mass unit commonly used in particle physics. For visual recognition, the mass of protons is approximately 938 MeV.
~ab Shaw Jin-jun, Lu Xianxian. Introduction to particle physics
^ This is more evident in English: spin is spin, co-score iso-spin
Doo Dongsheng, Yang Mao Shi. Introduction to Particle Physics
Case number: YXA150 AlBKTjl3MEGxSrvrg
I don’t know.
Keep your eyes on the road.
